Cattle farming is a significant driver of tropical deforestation, particularly in South and Central America. In South America, pasture expansion was responsible for over 70% of deforestation between 1990 and 2005. Globally, clearing forests for pastures to raise livestock (mainly beef) accounts for about 24% of gross deforestation. This translates to large climate impacts; deforestation in the tropics attributed to beef production produces 0.9 Gt CO2 per year. Supply-side measures, such as Brazil’s zero-deforestation cattle agreements, have avoided deforestation to some degree but are undermined by leakage. The majority of beef is consumed domestically, but exports are increasing, and with them associated deforestation; importing countries and markets are powerful actors in beef producing regions or countries.

Soy production has increased dramatically in recent decades, with approximately 72% going to animal feed. While yield improvements are partially responsible for increased production, soy has become a leading driver of land-use change and deforestation, largely in Brazil. From 1990-2008, the production of soybeans has been responsible for 5% of global deforestation. Soybean production caused 0.1 Gt CO2 per year from 2000-2011, most of which was exported. The Soy Moratorium in Mato Grosso, a voluntary zero-deforestation agreement enacted in 2006 by Brazilian agribusiness, has helped lower the deforestation rate attributed to soy to a degree. Despite these concerted international efforts, soy remains a significant driver of deforestation – 20% of Brazilian soy exports to the EU are still linked with illegal deforestation. Soy can also be an indirect or underlying cause of deforestation by displacing pastures into forested areas or inducing infrastructure development.

85% of palm oil and palm kernel oil is produced in Indonesia and Malaysia. The replacement of primary forests by industrial plantations in these areas releases large amounts of above and below-ground carbon and has significant negative impacts on biodiversity. About 4.5% of tropical deforestation is embodied in the production of palm oil, but it is responsible for 20% of deforestation embodied in trade between countries; palm oil produces 0.2 Gt CO2 per year due to land-use change. Palm oil is a highly-embedded commodity, showing up in everything from cookies to cosmetics to biodiesel, making it difficult to limit its use. In 2018, a moratorium on new oil palm permits for the next 3 years was signed by the Indonesian Prime Minister. This builds on a 2011 government moratorium on clearing primary forests which resulted in a reduction of primary forest loss by 45% in 2018 compared to 2002-2016 levels. Unfortunately, while signifying a promising commitment to decreasing deforestation, both moratoriums have been criticized for containing loopholes or lacking data transparency.

Wood fibre products are both a significant driver and by-product of commodity-driven deforestation. Timber extraction is strongly linked to deforestation in places such as Indonesia , where clear-cutting or high-grading for timber renders the forest ready for conversion to agricultural or other uses. 0.4 Gt CO2 per year is embodied in the production of wood products, 0.2 Gt of this is embodied in exports. Since 2011, the Indonesian pulp sector has achieved an 85% reduction in deforestation following the adoption of zero-deforestation commitments. In other cases the planned or intended conversion of forest into agricultural uses necessitates the removal of trees, which if they are not simply burned, may feed into the market for timber or other wood fiber products. This is seen in places such as Brazil, where forests degraded by selective logging are more likely than intact forests to be deforested.

In 2017, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana contributed 56% of global cocoa production. In these countries, deforestation and forest degradation are driven primarily by cocoa expansion – between 1988 and 2007, 2,300,000 ha of primary forest was cleared for cocoa farms. Cocoa is primarily exported to Western countries, with 40% of cocoa consumption occuring in Europe, 20% in North America, and demand continuing to rise across the globe. A number of initiatives and certification schemes have been established to end deforestation from cocoa production, such as the World Cocoa Foundation’s Cocoa Forests Initiative and Fairtrade or Rainforest Alliance certified cocoa.

67% of global coffee production occured in just five countries: Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia and Ethiopia , however there are few quantitative figures directly linking coffee to the deforestation it causes. Practises of coffee cultivation and their impact on forests are region-specific. In the case of Brazil, new sun-grown coffee plantations are most often planted on cattle pastureland and cultivated until the soil is exhausted. In Vietnam and Indonesia deforestation is usually a direct result of new coffee plantations, which in turn with ever-increasing crop yields has led to losses in biodiversity and rural displacement. In India, studies have shown a strong correlation between coffee farming and high arboreal biodiversity, due largely to practises of shade-grown coffee and cultural respect for the sacred forests the coffee is grown near. Leading certification systems such as Smithsonian Bird Friendly seek to ensure biodiversity and native tree cover is conserved in coffee production.

76% of natural rubber is produced in Southeast Asia, where 250,000 ha of natural vegetation was converted to rubber plantations between 2005 and 2010. 70% of natural rubber produced globally is used in tires. Deforestation occurs when primary forest is replaced by industrial plantations, which reduces biodiversity through habitat fragmentation. Rising demand and the expansion of rubber plantations threaten standing forests, including some protected areas in Southeast Asia. Recently, demand-side measures have surfaced such as the Sustainable Natural Rubber Initiative (SNR-i) – an emerging voluntary standard for rubber supply chains – and FSC-certified rubber products to ensure deforestation is stopped at the source.

This category includes many food and fiber crops recognized on different levels for their impact on tropical deforestation such as maize. Combined, these commodities accounted for over 1.5 million hectares of tropical deforestation in 2013. These crops are often part of practises otherwise referred to as shifting cultivation.

This category includes a number of other non-agricultural drivers of forest loss including urban expansion and wildfires as well as mining, infrastructure, and illegal land-use change that have yet to be globally quantified. It accounts for 49% (on average) of tropical and subtropical forest loss. This forest loss may be impermanent, however accounts for significant fluxes in global GHG levels and therefore requires large-scale mitigation. This forest loss is attributed at a constant level for all cities.